According to Breedlove and Watson (2018, p. 490), stress is “Any circumstance that upsets homeostatic balance.” Stress is multidimensional, resulting not simply from interactions between people and their environments, nor simply as a function of external events, but from the combination of stressful stimuli, individual interpretation of the stressor as threatening or not, and various reactions to stressful stimuli (Breedlove & Watson, 2018; Kramer et al., 2013). Stress has been associated with various kinds of illness. However, the good news is that several ways exist that people can adopt to counteract and manage their reactions to stress. Before delving into how to manage stress, it is important to examine how the body responds to stress and what happens when responses last long.
Body’s Response to Stress and Consequences of Prolonged Responses
Following Selye’s general adaptation syndrome (GAS), which represents a three-stage reaction, the initial response of the body as it encounters stress is known as the alarm reaction (Breedlove & Watson, 2018; Kramer et al.,2013). This first stage involves an immediate reaction to stressful stimuli in which the body activates the sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system to restore homeostatic balance (Butcher et al., 2014). Activating both systems helps to secrete hormones, release the body’s store of energy, and prepare the body for fight or flight. For instance, along the SAM axis, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), which in turn stimulates the adrenal medulla (the core adrenal gland) to release the hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). These hormones, in turn, prepare the body for fight or flight by increasing the heart rate, respiration, muscle tension, concentration of attention on the stressors, and other physiological processes. Along the HPA axis, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which, traveling in the bloodstream, stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). The ACTH then stimulates the adrenal cortex (the outer adrenal gland) to release the stress hormones, such as cortisol. Stress hormones also prepare the body for action, including releasing the body’s store of energy (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). Unfortunately, the activation of SAM and HPA systems in response to stress leads to the suppression of immune responses, which naturally consumes a lot of energy (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). Consequently, already at this initial stage, the body system can be vulnerable to diseases.
The second stage of response to stress is the resistant stage, which occurs when the stressor persists. This leads to more activation of SAM and HPA systems and a continuous release of stress hormones and endogenous opiates to cope with stress (Kramer et al., 2013). High levels of stress hormones, as a result of prolonged stress, are harmful to health, promoting increased vulnerability to infectious diseases, cancer, and autoimmune disorders (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). Hence, although the release of stress hormones for a short period of time is often beneficial, when they are released for a long time, they become problematic to health.
The third stage is characterized by exhaustion. It occurs when stressful stimuli continue long enough, causing various organ systems to begin to break down. This stage is associated with symptoms, such as fatigue, weight loss, heart diseases, ovulation suppression, infertility, steroid diabetes, hypertension (high blood pressure), neural degeneration in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, muscle wasting, impaired disease resistance, ulcers, bone decalcification, and psychogenic dwarfism (Breedlove & Watson, 2018; Kramer et al., 2013). All these problems will create more stress for the body.
Ways Stress Responses are Normally Counteracted
As indicated early, people can adopt several ways to counteract and manage stress responses. These strategies include being aware of stress-producing situation, exercise, meditation and relaxation training, emotional disclosure, engaging in social activities, healthy eating, taking a break from work (e.g., vacation) to be with loved ones, having a night sleep for seven to eight hours, and reducing hostility, anger, mistrust, and antagonism (Breedlove & Watson, 2018; Butcher et al., 2014). Other strategies include learning time management, changing thoughts, and prayer or other spiritual methods (Beidel et al., 2014; Kramer et al., 2013). I will discuss some of these methods.
Being Aware of Stress-Producing Situations
The first step in stress management is to identify stressful personal situations, including thoughts, feelings, behavior, and coping patterns that are part of the stress response in one’s environment and how to respond to them(Beidel et al. 2014). One good strategy to achieve this awareness is self-monitoring, a process in which people observe and record their behavior as it happens. For instance, patients may record mood and behavior, as well as the number of episodes of their panic attacks each day. Self-monitoring increases patients’ awareness of a problem behavior and subsequently reduces its frequency (Beidel et al., 2014)
Exercise
Evidence has shown that in both humans and animals, exercise has stress-buffering effects in the brain circuits involved in emotional processes, mood disorders, and medication effects (Stress-Defeating Effects of Exercise Traced to Emotional Brain Circuit, 2011). In other words, exercise fights off stress, as well as produces several other benefits to health. For instance, regular aerobic exercise, such as brisk walking and strength training, even at moderate levels, counteracts stress, as well as help to maintain good cholesterol; reduce blood pressure, symptoms of anxiety and depression, and the risk of heart disease, and develop healthy bones, muscles, joints (Hooyman et al., 2015). Other benefits of exercise include: prevention of hip fracture; reduction of weight and body fat, arthritis, lower back pain, and osteoporosis; and gains in lean muscle mass, strength, and balance. To achieve the maximum benefits of aerobic exercise, it needs to occur at least 30 minutes daily (Hooyman et al., 2015). Learn more about the use of exercise to fight off stress at —
Daily Practice of Meditation and Relaxation Training
Meditation is a practice in which one consciously regulates one’s attention to enhance calmness and well-being without harmful distraction (Cloninger, 2013). Meditation involves several techniques, including mindfulness (which allows thoughts to be observed as they are without judgment) deep breathing, yoga, relinquishing egocentric motivation and addiction, relinquishing false-concept through contemplation, silence, compassion, patience, and cultivating love by contemplating a teacher, saint, or God (Cloninger, 2013). Making an effort to slow down and relax through a daily practice of meditation has been shown to protect against stress, slow breathing, reduce blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen consumption, and prevent relapse of anxiety or depression (Butcher et al., 2014; Cloninger, 2013). For instance, Schneider et al. (2005) conducted a study on meditation with 194 African American patients with chronic hypertension. He found that there was a significant reduction in diastolic high blood pressure among patients who practiced meditation for 20 minutes twice a day compared to those who received sound health care advice. Meditation techniques also help to relax muscles as much as possible. Thus, meditation techniques are also good relaxation techniques (also known as relaxation training).
Furthermore, it is imperative to underscore that some programs of therapy are based on meditation techniques, and they are effective in dealing with stress. One such program is mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). As the name indicates, MBSR is based on mindfulness meditation. However, it is also inspired by various practices of meditation (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). It also pairs relaxation with efforts to focus attention on the present moment, including current sensations, thoughts, and bodily states, without being judgmental. This technique has been shown to reduce activity in the amygdala and prevent relapse of anxiety disorders or depression (Breedlove & Watson, 2018).
Changing Thoughts
Negative thoughts activate SAM and HPA systems and subsequently cause the release of stress hormones. The release of stress hormones, in turn, prepares the body for fight or flight by increasing the heart rate, respiration, muscle tension, and concentration of attention on these and physiological processes, as well as on the negative thoughts. Thus, when the mind is filled with negative thoughts, the body automatically becomes oriented toward negativities and subsequently becomes stressed up. A fundamental truth about negative thoughts is that they are often irrational. In other words, they are not based on empirical reality. They do not keep things in perspective. They exaggerate, awfulize, and catastrophize; demand (with shoulds, musts, and oughts) that things be the way one wants them to be,judge and damn; and have low frustration tolerance (Ellis & Joffe Ellis, 2019).
To fight off stress due to negative thoughts, people need to detect, evaluate, dispute, and modify their negative thoughts. Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) uses an ABCDE model to achieve this. A stands for activating event or stimulus that initiates the process of rational or irrational thoughts. The first step to counter stress due to negative thoughts is to detect the event (e.g., having a disease that has already killed a member of the family) that activates and initiates the process of negative thoughts. B stands for a person’s belief about the activating event as positive, negative, or neutral (e.g., because I have a disease that has already killed a member of my family, I begin to have negative thoughts about my life). C stands for the emotional and behavioral consequences of the belief (e.g., anxiety, depression, drinking alcohol, withdrawal, etc.). At this stage, the body is under stress. D stands for disputing the irrational belief. Here, realizing how an event has irrationally activated negative thoughts in you is essential. Finally, E stands for effective, rational positive beliefs about the event, which replace the irrational belief (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014).
Prayer and Spirituality
Having a supportive, faith-based community, prayer, or other spiritual methods, such as cultivating love by contemplating the gospel, saints, or God and other forms of spiritual meditation, are good means of countering stressors. For instance, evidence has shown that sitting in silence to have spiritual meditation for at least half an hour decreases blood pressure (Hooyman et al., 2015). Empirical research also has shown that having a guiding faith and a supportive faith-based community can serve as a protective factor for youth in a harsh psychosocial environment. (Shaffer et al., 2007). It is also evidence-based that payers and spirituality are effective mechanisms for coping with cancer in adults (Kramer et al., 2013).
Biofeedback
Biofeedback is the use of electronic devices to help patients be aware of their body functions that are typically outside of conscious awareness (e.g., heart rates, blood pressure, respiratory rate, level of muscle tension) and then learn to control them (Beidel et al., 2014; Butcher et al., 2014). Biofeedback works by connecting patients to monitoring equipment and then providing them with a cue (e.g., an audible tone) when they have achieved the desired response successfully (e.g., reduced blood pressure). As patients become more consciously aware of their internal responses over time, they are able to modify them when necessary(Butcher et al., 2014). Biofeedbackprocedures help to relieve pain and to promote relaxation. Learn more about biofeedback at—
Healthy Eating
A healthy diet has been associated with multiple benefits, including fighting off stress, controlling blood pressure, protecting the heart, strengthening the bones, cutting the risk of stroke, etc. For instance, a moderate reduction in saturated fats and processed carbohydrates can reduce cholesterol levels and the risk of heart disease. Hooyman et al. (2015) recommended replacing animal fat with olive oil. Similarly, decreased salt intake is good for heart health. Also, fruits rich in potassium (e.g., bananas and oranges), vegetables rich in magnesium, and foods high in calcium are good for heart health (Hooyman et al. 2015). Regarding vegetable and fruit intake, Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2016) recommended about two cups of fruit and two and a half cups of vegetables each day for good health.
Healthy Sleep
During sleep, the heart rates reduce, blood pressure and body temperature decrease, respiration becomes slower, and muscle tension reduces (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). The body conserves energy through these physiological changes that occur during sleep. Also, sleep rebuilds the body’s materials (e.g., proteins) used during waking, as well as restores the brain by allowing it to get rid of waste products (Breedlove & Watson, 2018). Therefore, sleep is a powerful means of fighting off stress. However, a specific number of hours for sleep needs to be maintained to counter stress. Evidence has shown that healthy sleep involves 7-8 hours of sleep a night. Kripke et al. (2002) conducted a study of over a million Americans and found that those who slept less than 6 hours per night were more likely to die the next year. They also found that sleeping more than 8 hours also carried a greater risk. Learn more about healthy sleeping habits at–
Reducing Hostility, Anger, Antagonism, and Mistrust
Negative emotions of anger, hostility, antagonism, and mistrust have been found to stress cardiac organs, leading to chronic heart diseases (e.g., coronary artery disease, myocardial infarctions, and heart attacks). Freidman and Rosenman (1959, 1974) researched different types of behavior patterns and found that people with behavior patterns characterized by anger, hostility, antagonism, and mistrust are most likely to suffer heart diseases. Therefore, to manage stress, one needs to stop displacing these negative emotions and replace them with positive emotions of happiness, laughter, smiles, love, etc.
Emotional Disclosure
Disclosing one’s life problem verbally or writing expressively about it in a systematic way also helps to counter stress. In a study conducted by Kelley, Lumley, and Leisen (1997), people with rheumatoid arthritis were randomly assigned to talk privately about stressful events and their pain, physical and emotional dysfunction, and joint conditions of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The authors found that people who disclosed their emotions had significantly improved psychological function compared to those assigned to a control group condition. However, they also noted that verbal disclosure and emotional processing of stressful events induced an immediate negative mood followed by improved psychological function. Similarly, Butcher et al. (2014) underscored that patients disclosing their emotions often experience an initial increase in emotional distress during the writing phase but then show improvement in their medical status over follow-up.
Quitting Smoking
Studies have shown that smoking is a strong activator of both SAM and HPA axes, which causes the release of stress hormones (Richards et al., 2011; Rohleder & Kirschbaum, 2006). Along the HPA axis, it binds to cholinergic receptors on the locus coeruleus and hypothalamus, inducing the release of CRH and subsequent production of cortisol. Along the SAM axis, smoking causes the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline, as well as an increase in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration (Richards et al. 2011). In other words, among smokers, there is a tendency for increased levels of stress hormones (e.g., cortisol and adrenaline) and physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate and respiratory rate). On this note, researchers observed that similar to behavioral stressors, cigarette smoking stresses the body by eliciting physiological responses, including an increase in cortisol release, heart rate, breathing, arterial blood pressure, and forearm blood flow (Richards et al., 2011; Tsuda et al.,1996). Hence, smoking addiction has been associated with stress responsiveness. For instance, Kirschbaum et al. (1992) reported a constant increase in cortisol levels compared to nonsmokers. In this study, they collected saliva samples of ten female smokers and ten female nonsmokers at 20-minute intervals over a 12-hour period. They observed that smokers showed a significant elevation of cortisol levels compared to nonsmokers. Similarly, Steptoes and Ussher (2006) reported that cigarette smoking is associated with a sharp elevation of cortisol levels. In the first part of their study, they collected saliva samples of 196 middle-aged men and women on working and weekend days and found that cortisol levels were significantly higher in smokers. In the second part of the study, they monitored the cortisol levels of 112 smokers who quit smoking for about six weeks. Conversely, they found that smoking cessation was associated with abrupt decreases in salivary cortisol.
Further research has also shown that tolerance or blunted responsiveness to the action of SAM and HPA systems builds as smoking continues (Richards et al., 2011). So, in chronic smokers, the stress hormones continue to be high, but with an acute tolerance to the physiological effects (e.g., increased heart rates and breathing) due to the activation of these axes. Hence, the result is blunted HPA axis stress reactions, preventing the body from responding appropriately to other stressful stimuli. Such blunted responsiveness to stress has been implicated in the containment of inflammatory diseases (Rohleder & Kirschbaum, 2006).
Furthermore, smoking also causes increased oxidative stress, which is an imbalance between free radicals (oxygen-containing molecules) and antioxidants in the body. Tobacco smoke contains a large number of free radicals and weakens the antioxidant defensive mechanism that regulates the large number of smoking-mediated free radicals (Papathanasiou et al., 2014). Consequently, chronic smoking leads to increased oxidative stress, which causes damage to cells and changes cellular deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), impairing the immune response, worsening existing diseases, and increasing inflammation (Hoey & Van, 2019). Additionally, smoking addiction leads to chronic high blood sugar accumulation that stresses organ functions. The activation of both SAM and HPA systems by nicotine and the subsequent release of stress hormones also strongly hamper insulin production, leading to a reduction of glucose catabolism (Papathanasiou et al., 2014). Hence, researchers have observed that smoking addiction leads to chronic accumulation of glucose in the body, which stresses organ functions and results in many health problems (Hoey & Van, 2019; Papathanasiou et al., 2014).
However, chronic smokers must note that quitting smoking is not going to be easy because smoking cessation leads to withdrawal symptoms, including anxiety, increased appetite, restlessness, anger, depressed mood, irritability, frustration, attention problems, and insomnia (APA, 2013). These symptoms are also stressful and can even cause clinically significant impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning (APA, 2013). Therefore, to successfully quit smoking, smokers need to seek advice from physicians or other medical experts, as well as employ several techniques to handle their nicotine withdrawal effects.
Conclusion
Since stress is multidimensional, various methods exist to counter stress and prevent its consequences. I have discussed a few of these methods. In other words, this post does not exhaust all the possible means of fighting off stress. In any case, it is imperative to underscore that people with serious physical diseases due to stress response, should seek medical treatments for their problem in addition to these stress coping skills enumerated above.
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